Ancient Scandinavia: What Was Life Like Before the Viking Age?

Ancient Scandinavia was settled later than other parts of Europe. The low temperatures and harsh conditions during the Pleistocene made the area less suitable for human settlement until around 9700 BC. However, living conditions remained very harsh compared to those in communities to the south…

Ancient Scandinavia During the Paleolithic Period

When writing about the prehistory of Scandinavia, it would be a good idea to first consider the paleoclimatic conditions of the region.

As is well known, the Ice Age, scientifically known as the Pleistocene, began approximately 2,580,000 years ago. Although relatively mild phases were observed during this long era, the Earth’s climate was much colder than it is today. During cold phases, glaciers advanced southward and to lower altitudes, while during milder periods, this process reversed, and glaciers retreated. In this context, four major glaciations stand out in Northern Europe: Eburonian, Elsterian, Saalian and Weichselian.

The Weichselian glaciation, which began 115,000 years ago, affected Northern Europe until around 11,700 years ago. During some phases of the glaciation, almost the entire territory of present-day Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Murmansk, Karelia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Denmark and Scotland was covered by ice sheets.¹

Environmental conditions made the Paleolithic period in Scandinavia start relatively late due to the inhospitable nature for human settlement. As the climate became milder, the region was temporarily settled by migratory tribes from Central Europe, but permanent settlements did not appear until the end of the Ice Age.

As mentioned above, during the Ice Age, Scandinavia was largely covered by glaciers. With the warming climate, the melting of glaciers revealed new land previously covered by ice. Over time, birch trees, rowan trees and boreal taiga forests began to spread over these new land areas. With the increase in reindeer populations, Southern Scandinavia became attractive to Paleolithic hunter-gatherer communities.

During archaeological excavations in Scandinavia, many stone tools, bone remains and camp materials have been discovered. The findings indicate that the region’s earliest inhabitants were largely hunter-gatherer groups pursuing mammoths and reindeer. These groups, using simple stone tools to survive, had to adapt their lifestyles and survival strategies to the harsh climatic conditions.

Archaeological evidence shows that mammoths were able to survive in Scandinavia and the Baltic region even during the Last Glacial Maximum (26,000 – 20,000 years ago).²

How Did the Ice Age Affect the Geomorphology of Ancient Scandinavia?

The glacial movements lasting approximately 2.5 million years significantly altered the surface features of Ancient Scandinavia. During this extended period, the advance and retreat of massive glacier masses that covered the region led to the formation of complex geomorphological features. As the glaciers moved, they carved deep valleys into the land, which over time transformed into large depressions known as glacial valleys.

Drumlins and moraines, formed depending on the direction of glacial movements, are other structural formations that altered the geomorphology of Ancient Scandinavia.

Bromme Culture

The Bromme culture, dated between 11,600 and 9,800 BCE, encompasses all of Denmark, the northern coasts of Germany, and the northeastern coast of Poland. It is characterized by single-edged scrapers and large flake tools.

The Bromme people primarily survived by hunting reindeer, elk and beavers. It is also believed that they consumed forest fruits found in the taiga. Some settlements associated with the Bromme culture have been submerged due to rising sea levels. It is hoped that future research conducted by underwater archaeologists will provide more detailed information about this culture.³

Ancient Scandinavia During the Mesolithic Period

The Mesolithic period spans from the end of the Paleolithic to the transition to the Neolithic, roughly from 10,000 to 4,000 BCE in Scandinavia. During this time, the hunter-gatherer lifestyle continued, but new technologies and social structures began to emerge.

Archaeological findings indicate that more sophisticated tools and weapons were developed in Mesolithic Scandinavia. Microliths, small stone tools, were commonly used and are believed to have significantly facilitated hunting and fishing activities.

Genetically, the Mesolithic period was marked by significant changes in the demographic structure of Ancient Scandinavia. Mergers among different hunter-gatherer groups played a crucial role in shaping the genetic heritage of the Ancient Scandinavian populations.

Maglemosian Culture

The Maglemosian culture, which existed from around 9,000 to 6,000 BCE, takes its name from the Maglemose archaeological site in Denmark.

One of the prominent features of the Maglemosian culture is the widespread use of tools and weapons made from organic materials such as wood and bone. During this period, hunting tools such as axes and arrows were produced with a workmanship that required mastery. The most important game animals were the aurochs, bison, elk, red deer, roe deer, wild boar, lynx, fox, marten, badger and water hen.

In the Maglemosian culture, homes and shelters were established near water sources. However, since sea levels were lower during the Mesolithic period compared to today, many shelters from this time have been submerged.⁴

Kongemose Culture

The Kongemose culture, which developed between 6,000 BC and 5,200 BC, emerged in Denmark and Southern Sweden. It is considered a continuation of the Maglemosian culture.

The remains of the Kongemose culture show that people in this period hunted with more advanced techniques compared to the Maglemosian culture. During this period, great advances were made, especially in fishing. Eel, hornfish, turbot, cod, pike, flounder and herring were the most commonly consumed seafood.⁵

Ertebølle Culture

The Ertebølle culture is an important example of the transition from a Mesolithic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to Neolithic agricultural societies. Developing in the same region as the Kongemose culture, it existed from 5,300 to 3,950 BCE.

It is known that pottery making began in Ancient Scandinavia during the Ertebølle culture. Despite the absence of local agriculture, there is evidence that local grains obtained from southern communities were used.⁶

Ancient Scandinavia During the Neolithic Period

The Neolithic is the period when agriculture was first practiced and megalithic structures began to be built. It covers the time span from 4000 BC to 1700 BC in Ancient Scandinavia.

Changes in the geographical and climatic conditions of Ancient Scandinavia during the Neolithic period resulted in the region becoming suitable for agriculture. This process, especially the increase in soil fertility, made the emergence of agricultural societies possible. The shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a productive and agriculture-based societal structure necessitated settled life. This radical change, also called the Neolithic Revolution, also affected the demographic structure and triggered population growth in later periods.

Funnelbeaker Culture

Between 4000 BC and 2800 BC, the Funnelbeaker culture, which was present in present-day Denmark, southern Sweden, northern Germany, and northeastern Poland, is named after its characteristic funnel-shaped pottery.

Excavations at settlements of the Funnelbeaker culture have uncovered areas of agricultural production, facilities related to animal husbandry, and structures for pottery kilns used in ceramic production. Additionally, many megalithic structures in the region covering northern Central Europe and Scandinavia are dated to this period.⁷

Pitted Ware Culture

The Pitted Ware culture, named after its characteristic punctuated pottery, existed between 3200 BC and 2300 BC. These years represent a period in Ancient Scandinavia when the hunter-gatherer lifestyle continued, but the influence of agricultural societies was increasing.

The Pitted Ware culture spread across present-day Denmark, Sweden, and the southern coast of Norway. Archaeological findings show that people of this culture were in continuous and active commercial interaction both with the agricultural societies in the inland areas of Ancient Scandinavia and with the hunter-gatherer communities around the Baltic Sea.⁸

Corded Ware Culture

The Corded Ware culture, considered one of the successors to the Funnelbeaker culture, emerged around 3000 BC and lasted until around 2350 BC. Over time, it spread eastward and northward, influencing present-day Belarus, the Baltic countries, and the southern coast of Finland, and even left archaeological traces on the Norwegian coast as far as Nordland.

One of the most characteristic features of the Corded Ware culture is the rope-shaped patterns widely used in ceramic production. These patterns were applied to the surfaces of pottery using embossing or carving techniques.

Genetic studies related to the Corded Ware culture indicate that this culture may have been greatly influenced by the Yamnaya culture of Eastern European origin. However, some scientists argue that individuals in both the Corded Ware culture and the Yamnaya culture may have descended from a genetically similar pre-Yamnaya population.⁹

Battle Axe Culture

The Battle Axe culture developed towards the end of the Neolithic period, between 2,800 BC and 2,300 BC, on the southern coasts of Finland, Sweden and Norway. Originally confined to southern Scandinavia, the Battle Axe culture later spread to the east coast of Norway, leaving traces around Nordland, Nord-Trøndelag and Sør-Trøndelag.¹⁰

The most distinct feature of the Battle Axe culture, as the name suggests, is the large battle axes, typically made of stone or metal. These axes were also used as grave goods. Archaeological data from the later stages of the period indicate that some deceased individuals were also subjected to cremation.

Did the Copper Age not occur in Ancient Scandinavia?
While the Copper Age occurred in other parts of Europe between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, there are no clear remains from this period in Ancient Scandinavia. This can be explained by the fact that the geography of Ancient Scandinavia limited cultural interaction with communities in the south of the region. For this reason, when considering the historical stages of Ancient Scandinavia in their academic studies, researchers generally move directly from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age.

Ancient Scandinavia During the Bronze Age

In Ancient Scandinavia, the Bronze Age is dated between 1700 BC and 500 BC. This period was marked by significant transformations and advancements in Scandinavian societies. Agricultural techniques improved, trade networks expanded, progress was made in metalworking and social structures became more complex. In other words, life had become more sophisticated in many ways during this era.

Trade and Industry – In the Bronze Age, obtaining bronze in Ancient Scandinavia required importing copper and tin, as there were no natural bronze deposits in these regions. This situation led Scandinavian societies to establish broader trade networks with other European societies. Indeed, advancements in metalworking and increased efficiency in agriculture provided them with more products to trade. This drove them to forge closer connections with traders from Southern Europe. Trade routes extending from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean facilitated the exchange not only of metal but also of precious stones, jewelry, and other luxury goods. Over time, significant progress was also made in maritime techniques. Shipbuilding became an important industry in Scandinavian societies.

Burial Structures and Rituals – Ancient Scandinavia has numerous burial mounds dating back to the Bronze Age. In Denmark alone, approximately 50,000 burial mounds have been identified as having been constructed in less than four centuries from 1500 BC onwards.¹¹

It has been observed that various items that the deceased would need in the afterlife were left in the graves. Among these objects, precious stones, weapons, handmade jewelry and daily use items are the most common. Jewelry and ornaments indicate that the deceased was a woman, while weapons and war equipment indicate that the deceased was a warrior. In addition, animal bones and even animal sacrifices have been found in some graves.

Ancient Scandinavia During the Iron Age

The Iron Age in Ancient Scandinavia began in 500 BC and continued until 800 AD. Since iron was a more durable and widespread metal than bronze, weapons and tools began to be made of iron during this period. This technological change affected every aspect of society.

Agriculture – During this period, great advances were made in agriculture. Iron tools allowed the soil to be cultivated more efficiently, which increased agricultural production and increased the population. New agricultural techniques and tools made it possible to farm more efficiently even in the harsh climate of Ancient Scandinavia. The development of agriculture accelerated the transition to settled life, and villages and small settlements emerged.

Trade and Industry – The increased productivity in agriculture contributed to the development of trade. Iron became a valuable trade commodity. Trade across the Baltic Sea and the North Sea brought Scandinavian societies into greater contact with the outside world. Merchants not only exchanged goods, but also ideas and culture, contributing to the enrichment of Scandinavian culture. Shipping technology in the Bronze Age was further developed, and longships were used for exploration and raiding as well as trade.

Social Structure – The Iron Age saw significant changes in the social structure of societies in Ancient Scandinavia. Different occupational groups emerged, such as warriors, merchants, and artisans. Warriors were at the top of society, while farmers and peasants were at lower levels. Warrior leaders played important roles in local government and in shaping social structures. However, power struggles between local tribes became more frequent.

Religion and Art – During this period, works of art and decorative elements produced with ironwork were accepted as symbols of social status and individual identity. Some objects featured stylized depictions of mythological beings.

Norse mythology and religious beliefs, as indicated by petroglyphs, were largely shaped during the Iron Age. Mythological stories about gods and goddesses became richer during this period and became central to the society’s belief system. In particular, beliefs about sky gods, nature spirits and beings in the other world formed the basis of the mythological thought system in the Viking Age.

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