“History begins at Sumer.” said Samuel Noah Kramer, an assyriologist who specializes in Sumerian history. The Sumerians, who emerged on the historical stage in the Late Chalcolithic period, are also known as the civilization that developed cuneiform writing. Therefore, the beginning of historical ages is associated with the Sumerians. This ancient civilization, which took root in the fertile plains of Mesopotamia, not only systematized written communication, but also influenced subsequent states in many areas such as agriculture, trade, mythology, culture and art. In particular, Sumerian architecture, which added a unique aesthetic and functionality to the Mesopotamian geography, became a source of inspiration for the Akkadians, Elamites, Assyrians and Babylonians who dominated the region in the following years.
What Was the Basic Sumerian Building Material
The Sumerians, one of the oldest civilizations in human history, established the first known city-states by constructing temples, palaces, houses and walls.
So, how did they achieve this 5000 years ago? What kind of materials did they use to build these impressive structures?
The Sumerians lived in the southern region of Mesopotamia, primarily within the borders of present-day Iraq. Although this region was rich in water and fertile soil, it lacked natural resources such as stone, wood and metal. Faced with extremely limited options for construction materials, the Sumerians had to make do with natural resources like mud, reeds and clay in their building projects.
In Southern Mesopotamia, the most abundant and versatile material was clay. The Sumerians utilized clay for making both bricks and tiles, as well as pottery and sculptures. Clay mixed with water and straw was transformed into mud bricks by drying them in the sun or firing them in kilns. Due to being inexpensive, easy to produce and durable, mud bricks were the main building blocks in Sumerian architecture.
How to Make Mud Brick?
The first step is the selection of soil. Generally, soil with a high clay content is preferred for this process. After the soil is purified from rocks and similar foreign materials, water is added to achieve a workable consistency. After sprinkling some straw, the mixture is trodden and crushed with feet to turn it into mud. After the mud becomes homogeneous, it is poured into brick-shaped wooden molds and compacted thoroughly. Finally, after the bricks are removed from their molds, they are left to dry in the sun or in a well-ventilated area. During this process, the water inside the bricks evaporates, and the bricks become thoroughly hardened. In this last stage, bricks can sometimes be hardened more quickly by kiln-driving.
Another building material commonly used in Sumerian architecture was reeds. Reeds, which grew along the banks of rivers and marshes, were collected and processed into mats, baskets, ropes and fences. Because reeds are flexible and strong, they were generally used in the construction of columns, arches and domes.
Basic Building Types in Sumerian Architecture
Despite being limited in stone, wood and metal resources, the Sumerians constructed a wide variety of structures using mud bricks. However, the majority of these structures have not survived to the present day.
The prominent structures of Sumerian architecture can be summarized as houses, which were the primary elements of the shelter needs, high walls surrounding cities, temples containing important clues related to religious beliefs, and magnificent palaces where kings led their lives.
Houses
In Sumerian architecture, houses were typically constructed with a rectangular or square plan and flat roofs. The main building material for most houses was mud bricks. Houses are generally designed to suit the needs of large families.
In Sumerian homes, rooms were usually arranged to surround a courtyard located at the entrance of the house. Courtyards served the dual purpose of providing light to the rooms and serving as spaces where family members gathered, perhaps enjoying dinners together outdoors.
The layout of houses was designed to accommodate the family life and daily routines of Sumerian society. Practical and functional planning formed the basis of Sumerian architecture when it came to residential spaces.
City Walls
In Sumerian architecture, walls are structures built to protect the Sumerian cities in ancient Mesopotamia against various threats. The city walls, which have an impressive appearance in terms of height and thickness, aimed to keep the city’s residents safe inside with these features. Additionally, they served functions such as defining the boundaries of the city and controlling entry points. In this way, effective protection was provided against potential threats from outside.
The walls were often reinforced with watchtowers and gates. Watchtowers were used to monitor the surrounding area and detect potential threats early. Gates, strategically placed, controlled entrances and exits.
Temples
The most sacred structures in Sumerian architecture were temples, usually located in city centers or at the top of pyramidal structures called ziggurats. These temples, dedicated to the gods and goddesses of Sumerian mythology, were also educational and cultural centers where priests and some artisans carried out their duties and activities.
The earliest temples, dating from the 4th millennium BC, were simple rectangular structures with a tripartite plan consisting of a long central sanctuary surrounded by two smaller rooms. In the sanctuary, there would typically be an altar and an offering table. The rooms contained various bases for votive statues and other objects.
The best-known example of this type of temple is the White Temple in Uruk. Dedicated to the Sumerian sky god Anu and thought to have been built in the late 4th millennium BC, the White Temple took its name from the white plaster covering its walls.1
During the Early Dynastic Period (circa 2900 BCE – 2350 BCE), temples evolved into more complex and detailed structures. Some temples adhered to the classic Sumerian triple-plan, but the architectural complex was enriched by adding more rooms, courtyards and additional buildings. Others deviated from the classical model and adopted T, L and E-shaped plans. Additionally, during this period, the size and height of temples increased.
Palaces
Just as the gods had their temples, the kings had to have their own residences. Palaces were places where Sumerian kings both lived their private lives and carried out state administration. They were often located around temples or in the city centers, reflecting their relationships with both the gods and the people.
The earliest palaces from the Early Dynastic period were modest and simple structures, similar in plan and form to temples. They consisted of a series of rectangular rooms and courtyards arranged around a central hall and throne room. The rooms were divided into various units such as living spaces, warehouses, workshops and kitchens.
During the Third Dynasty of Ur, also known as the Neo-Sumerian Empire, Sumerian palaces evolved into more complex and elaborate structures. This era, approximately between 2112 BC and 2004 BC, was a period of political and economic revival of the city of Ur. Therefore, palaces were no longer modest structures and turned into majestic, magnificent and prestigious structures, reflecting the evolution of Sumerian architecture. In fact, in some palace complexes, the traditional rectangular form was abandoned and circular, oval or polygonal plans were adopted.
In the 21st century BCE, Sumerian art and literature reached its peak in Ur.2
Architectural Heritage of Sumerians
One of the most significant remnants of Sumerian architecture is the ancient city of Ur, located on the banks of the Tigris River in present-day southern Iraq. Additionally, important artifacts have been unearthed through archaeological excavations in other ancient Sumerian cities like Eridu, Uruk and Nippur. Museums in the region house numerous archaeological remains from Sumerian civilization. Particularly, the Iraq National Museum in the capital, Baghdad, showcases many artifacts from the Sumerian period and other Mesopotamian civilizations.
- Dr. Senta German, “White Temple and ziggurat, Uruk,” in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015, accessed February 14, 2024[↩]
- Frayne, D. (2008). Presargonic Period: Early Periods, Volume 1. University of Toronto Press. ISBN: 9781442690479[↩]
