Mythology can be defined as a set of supernatural narratives that emerge from people’s efforts to make sense of existence, life, and the universe. Why do we exist? What is our purpose in life? How did the universe come into being? How will the world end? What happens after death? Many questions that lie deep within us have been attempted to be understood through myths and legends. As a result of these efforts to find meaning, humanity developed concepts with intellectual foundations, such as heaven, hell, and the devil, long before the Abrahamic religions. The concept of hell, in particular, appears in many mythologies with intriguing descriptions and various names as places where evil spirits are punished.
Tartarus
The concept of hell has been imagined in many mythologies and cultures as a place where souls are punished after death. However, elements such as how to get there or the mechanisms of punishment have been interpreted differently in different cultures.
Tartarus in ancient Greek mythology is one of the first archetypes of the concept of hell. The ancient Greek poet Hesiod wrote that an iron anvil fell from heaven to the earth in nine days, and from the earth to Tartarus in nine more days. Therefore, as much as heaven is above the earth, hell is just as far below.
According to mythological narratives, Tartarus is the deepest pit on earth. No light can enter it. It is surrounded by walls. The screams of the souls of those who defy the gods or mortals who have committed great crimes echo between these walls.
Hel
According to sources in early Norse literature, Hel is a cold, dark, and terrifying place underground. In this respect, it differs from the modern concept of hell, which is often depicted as being filled with flames. Most of those who go to Hel are souls of people who did not die in battle and who passed away from natural causes. Those who break their oaths are chewed by the dragon Níðhöggr in a place called Náströnd, located within Hel.
Some folklorists suggest that Hel is actually a realm where the souls of the dead continue to live. According to this view, Hel later evolved into a realm of punishment, influenced by the Christian understanding of hell.
Tamag
Tamag, also known as Tamu, is a realm corresponding to hell in Turkic mythology. It is located underground, similar to the underworld realms in Greek and Norse mythologies. In this context, it is associated with Erlik, the god of the underworld. Its opposite is Uçmag, the heaven located in the sky and named after the Turkish verb “uç”, meaning “to fly”.
The specifics of what Tamag is like are not fully known due to the lack of written sources. However, based on expressions such as “dark tamag” and “red tamag” in legends and shamanic texts, it is thought to be a dark and flame-filled place. Talented shamans are believed to be able to descend to Tamag with the help of spirits during trance and communicate with Erlik, who lives in an iron castle there.
Mictlān
In Aztec mythology, Mictlān is considered the final destination of souls after death. It is generally thought to consist of nine layers. Reaching this underworld is a very difficult process for the soul of the deceased. The soul must pass through nine stages full of danger.
The ruler of Mictlān is Mictlāntēcutli, the god of death and the underworld, and his wife Mictēcacihuātl. Mictlāntēcutli is usually depicted as a skeletal and frightening figure. When souls reach Mictlān, they appear before these deities and live an eternal life there. Although the souls in Mictlān find ultimate peace after death, according to Aztec beliefs, this place is quite dark and gloomy.
Duat
In Egyptian mythology, souls are judged by Osiris and other gods before entering the underworld called Duat. One of the most well-known tests is the weighing of the soul’s heart against the feather of Ma’at (goddess of truth and justice). If the heart is heavier than the feather, the soul is devoured by Ammit and ceases to exist. If the heart weighs the same as the feather, the soul earns the right to live a peaceful life in the afterlife.
In Duat, souls face various difficulties and obstacles. These difficulties include dark pools and dangers such as snakes.
Naraka
Naraka, also known as Yamaloka, is the place where sinful souls are tortured in Hindu mythology. It is a place full of flames, very similar to today’s understanding of hell. Sinful souls pay the price for their sins by burning in fire. This fire is also considered a cleansing element.
Naraka consists of seven or twenty-one layers. Each layer is designed for different sins. Accordingly, there are different punishments in each layer. At the very bottom lies Avīci, the layer where the most severe punishments are inflicted.
The punishments in Naraka are temporary. After souls have paid the price for their sins and been cleansed, they reincarnate according to their karma.
Irkalla
In Mesopotamian mythology, Irkalla, also known as Kukku, Arali, Kigal, and Erṣetu, is the underworld where the souls of the living go after death. Souls that leave their mortal bodies, regardless of how good or bad they are, remain in Irkalla forever.
The ruler of Irkalla is Ereshkigal, the goddess of the underworld. In some myths, Ereshkigal shares rule with her husband Nergal.
Irkalla is often depicted as a dark, dusty, and waterless place. The dead are thought to exist as shadows, living there in a weak and ghostly form. The only thing they will consume is dust.
Peklo
In Slavic mythology, Peklo is described as a dark, cold, scary and suffocating place. It is ruled by the god of the underworld, Veles. Souls that have been infected with sin pay the price for their transgressions by suffering in Peklo.